Karst is a type of landform that results from the dissolution of rocks. It is usually associated with cave systems and landscapes characterised by rocks sculpted by dissolution with large surface depressions, disappearing rivers and major springs. Karst processes occur in all soluble rocks, resulting in high vulnerability to pollution. Karst rocks are also impacted by sinkholes.
Map showing the distribution of the Chalk and Jurassic and Permian limestones in England. Contains Ordnance Survey data © Crown Copyright and database rights 2016. BGS © UKRI.
UK karst aquifers
In the UK, karst is usually associated with Carboniferous-aged limestone, in which there is extensive cave development. The longest-known cave is more than 80 km in length and there are more than 170 explored caves that are more than 1 km long.
In contrast, caves are uncommon in the Chalk and the Jurassic and Permian limestones of England. The longest known cave in the Jurassic limestones is around 3.8 km, although many areas of Jurassic limestones have no known caves. The longest known cave in the Chalk is 360 m; the longest in the Permian limestones is 290 m.
A chalk cave in Berkshire, England. Approximately 0.4 m wide and 2.5 m deep. BGS (c) UKRI.
Jurassic limestone cave, Yorkshire. Photo © John Dale and Carl Thomas.
Carboniferous limestone cave, south Wales. © Tim Guilford.
Despite the limited cave development, complex networks of smaller-scale dissolutional voids occur in these aquifers, enabling rapid or long-distance pollutant transport.
Evidence for karst in the Chalk and Jurassic and Permian limestone aquifers includes the presence of:
- stream sinks
- dolines (sinkholes)
- solution pipes
- conduits (observed in quarries or boreholes)
- large springs
- tracer tests
- microbial contaminants and turbidity
Karst information and resources
The BGS karst report series provides an overview of the evidence of karst in different regions of England with Chalk or Jurassic or Permian limestone geology. The new understanding of karst in the Chalk is presented in Maurice et al. (2021), with additional information on the karst hydrogeology of the Bedhampton and Havant springs.
Karst in the Chalk and Jurassic and Permian limestones is also discussed by BGS’s Lou Maurice in this presentation to the Thames Valley Regional Group of the Geological Society, ‘Karst — an unexpectedly widespread phenomenon in England’.
Presentation to the Thames Valley Regional Group of the Geological Society.
Further reading
References related to different karst topics are provided. These reference lists are not comprehensive but provide a starting point for scientists interested in the karst hydrogeology of the UK karst aquifers in which cave development is limited (the Chalk and the Jurassic and Permian limestones). Some more general references on karst are included for context. Further references can be found in the BGS karst reports.
Agbotui, P Y, West, L J, and Bottrell, S H. 2020. Characterisation of fractured carbonate aquifers using ambient borehole dilution tests. Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 589, 125191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125191
Allshorn, S J L, Bottrell, S H, West, L J, and Odling, N E. 2007. Rapid karstic bypass flow in the unsaturated zone of the Yorkshire chalk aquifer and implications for contaminant transport. 111–122 in Natural and Anthropogenic Hazards in Karst Areas: recognition, analysis and mitigation. Parise, M, and Gunn, J (editors). Geological Society of London Special Publications, Vol. 279. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/SP279.10
Ballesteros, D, Farrant, A, Nehme, C, Woods, M, Todisco, D, and Mouralis, D. 2020. Stratigraphical influence on chalk cave development in Upper Normandy, France: implications for chalk hydrogeology. International Journal of Speleology, Vol. 49(3), 187–208. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5038/1827-806X.49.3.2319
Banks, D, Davies, C, and Davies, W. 1995. The Chalk as a karstic aquifer: evidence from a tracer test at Stanford Dingley, Berkshire, UK. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, Vol. 28(1), S31–S38. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/GSL.QJEGH.1995.028.S1.03
Edmonds, C. 2008. Improved groundwater vulnerability mapping for the karstic Chalk aquifer of south east England. Engineering Geology, Vol. 99(3–4), 95–108. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2007.11.019
El Janyani, S, Dupont, J P, Massei, N, Slimani, S, and Dörfliger, N. 2014. Hydrological role of karst in the Chalk aquifer of Upper Normandy, France. Hydrogeology Journal, Vol. 22(3), 663–677. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-013-1083-z
Farrant, A R, Maurice, L, Mathewson, E, Ascott, M, Earl, G, and Wilkinson, D. 2021. Caves and karst of the Chalk in East Sussex; implications for groundwater management. Cave and Karst Science, Vol. 48(2), 65–83.
Farrant, A R, Maurice, L, Nehme C, and Ballesteros, D. 2021. The genesis and evolution of karstic conduit systems in the Chalk. In The Chalk Aquifers of Northern Europe. Farrell, R. P, Massei, N, Foley, A E, Howlett, P R, and West, L J. (editors). Geological Society of London Special Publications, Vol 517. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/SP517-2020-126
Foley, A, and Worthington, S R H. 2021. Advances in conceptualising transport in Chalk aquifers. 75–91 in The Chalk Aquifers of Northern Europe. Farrell, R P, Massei, N, Foley, A E, Howlett, P R and West, L J. (editors). Geological Society of London Special Publications, Vol. 517. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/SP517-2020-173
Karapanos, I, Jaweesh, M, Yarker, D R, Sage, R C, Marsili, A, and Powers, E M. 2020. Evidence of layered piezometry system within the Chalk aquifer in parts of south-east England. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, Vol. 54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/qjegh2019-175
MacDonald, A M, Brewerton, L J, and Allen, D J. 1998. Evidence for rapid groundwater flow and karst-type behaviour in the Chalk of southern England. 95–106 In Groundwater Pollution, Aquifer Recharge and Vulnerability. Robins, N S (editor). Geological Society Special Publications, Vol. 130. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.130.01.09
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Massei, N, Lacroix, M, Wang, H Q, Mahler, B J, and Dupont, J P. 2002. Transport of suspended solids from a karstic to an alluvial aquifer: the role of the karst/alluvium interface. Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 260, 88–101. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(01)00608-4
Maurice, L, Farrant, A R, Mathewson, E, and Atkinson T. 2021. Karst hydrogeology of the Chalk and implications for groundwater protection. In The Chalk Aquifers of Northern Europe. Farrell, R P, Massei, N, Foley, A E, Howlett, P R, and West, L J (editors). Geological Society of London Special Publications, Vol. 517. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/SP517-2020-267
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More information
Maurice, L, Farrant, A R, Mathewson, E, and Atkinson T. 2021. Karst hydrogeology of the Chalk and implications for groundwater protection. 39–62 in The Chalk Aquifers of Northern Europe. Farrell, R P, Massei, N, Foley, A E, Howlett, P R, and West, L J (editors). Geological Society of London Special Publications, Vol. 517. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/SP517-2020-267
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Find out more about our research
Karst features
The distinctive features of karst landscapes.
Karst hydrogeology of the Bedhampton and Havant springs
One of the best examples of Chalk karst springs in the UK.
Karst report series
An overview of the evidence for karst in the Chalk and Jurassic and Permian limestones in different areas of England.
What causes sinkholes?
Explore the different types of sinkhole encountered in the UK.
Sinkholes research
Our research extends beyond the distribution and processes associated with sinkhole formation to the broader subject of karst.