{"id":4913,"date":"2025-09-19T12:14:00","date_gmt":"2025-09-19T11:14:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/?page_id=4913"},"modified":"2025-11-10T07:54:01","modified_gmt":"2025-11-10T07:54:01","slug":"baseline-scotland-data-summaries-moray-firth","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/baseline-chemistry-uk-aquifers\/baseline-reports\/scotland-reports\/baseline-scotland-data-summaries-moray-firth\/","title":{"rendered":"Moray Firth"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t\t<section class=\"hero-section hero-section-with-social\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"hero-info-wrap\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"row\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"col-12\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"hero-info\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h1>Moray Firth<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Baseline Scotland data summaries<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"social-wrap social-wrap-inline-them\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sea-background-f\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<span>Share this article<\/span><a target=\"_blank\"  href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/sharer\/sharer.php?u=https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/baseline-chemistry-uk-aquifers\/baseline-reports\/scotland-reports\/baseline-scotland-data-summaries-moray-firth\/\"><span class=\"icon-facebook\"><span class=\"hidden\">Facebook<\/span><\/span><\/a><a target=\"_blank\"  href=\"https:\/\/twitter.com\/intent\/tweet?text=Moray%20Firth&#038;url=https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/baseline-chemistry-uk-aquifers\/baseline-reports\/scotland-reports\/baseline-scotland-data-summaries-moray-firth\/\"><span class=\"icon-twitter\"><span class=\"hidden\">Twitter<\/span><\/span><\/a><a   onclick=\"javascript:void( (function() {var e=document.createElement('script' );e.setAttribute('type','text\/javascript' );e.setAttribute('charset','UTF-8' );e.setAttribute('src','\/\/assets.pinterest.com\/js\/pinmarklet.js?r='+Math.random()*99999999);document.body.appendChild(e)})());\"  href=\"javascript:void(0);\"><span class=\"icon-pinterest\"><span class=\"hidden\">Pinterest<\/span><\/span><\/a><a target=\"_blank\"  href=\"https:\/\/wa.me?text=https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/baseline-chemistry-uk-aquifers\/baseline-reports\/scotland-reports\/baseline-scotland-data-summaries-moray-firth\/\"><span class=\"icon-whatsapp\"><span class=\"hidden\">WhatsApp<\/span><\/span><\/a><a   href=\"mailto:?subject=Moray%20Firth&#038;body=%20(https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/baseline-chemistry-uk-aquifers\/baseline-reports\/scotland-reports\/baseline-scotland-data-summaries-moray-firth\/)\"><span class=\"icon-mail\"><span class=\"hidden\">Email<\/span><\/span><\/a><a href=\"#\" data-copy=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/baseline-chemistry-uk-aquifers\/baseline-reports\/scotland-reports\/baseline-scotland-data-summaries-moray-firth\/\" class=\"copy-url-on-click\"><span class=\"icon-link\"><span class=\"hidden\">Copy Link<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/div><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\n\n\n<section class=\"wp-block-bgs-blocks-content-container content-section\"><div class=\"container\"><div class=\"row\"><div class=\"col-12\">\n<p>A total of 39 groundwater samples have been interpreted to investigate the groundwater chemistry of the Old Red Sandstone (ORS) aquifers in the Moray Firth area. Of these, 17 were collected in 2007 specifically for the Baseline Scotland project. These were augmented with a further 22 samples collected during separate BGS projects since 2001. The sites were chosen so that the data would be representative of groundwater across the ORS aquifers in the area.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Three main aquifer units were sampled: the lower, middle and upper ORS in the Moray Firth area. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Note on Old Red Sandstone<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>&#8216;Old Red Sandstone&#8217; is now used as a facies term. The rocks in the study area belong largely to the middle of the ORS system, but the area also includes rocks of the lower and upper ORS.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Rock units in the lower ORS include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Cnoc Fyrish Conglomerate Formation<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Braemore Mudstone Formation<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/webapps.bgs.ac.uk\/lexicon\/lexicon.cfm?pub=DVC\">Daviot Conglomerate Formation<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Rock units in the middle ORS include:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/webapps.bgs.ac.uk\/lexicon\/lexicon.cfm?pub=SAR\">Sarclet Group<\/a> <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/webapps.bgs.ac.uk\/lexicon\/lexicon.cfm?pub=BKI\">Black Isle Sandstone Group<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/webapps.bgs.ac.uk\/lexicon\/lexicon.cfm?pub=INS\">Inverness Sandstone Group<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The main unit of the upper ORS is the <a href=\"https:\/\/webapps.bgs.ac.uk\/lexicon\/lexicon.cfm?pub=FSA\">Forres Sandstone Group<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>(\u00d3 Dochartaigh et al., 2010.)<\/p>\n\n\n<figure  class=\"img-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/Samplingpts_Morayshire.jpg\" data-toggle=\"lightbox\" data-footer=\"&lt;p&gt;Coverage of baseline sampling in the Midland Valley against the 625K geology map of the region. BGS \u00a9 UKRI.&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-gallery=\"gallery_73085\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/Samplingpts_Morayshire.jpg\" class=\"lazy-blur\" alt=\"Map of the Moray Firth showing sampling points\" data-src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/Samplingpts_Morayshire.jpg\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"caption \">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/info-caption.svg\" alt=\"Information icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-text\"><p>Coverage of baseline sampling in the Midland Valley against the 625K geology map of the region. BGS \u00a9 UKRI.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"expand-box expand-box-top\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/Samplingpts_Morayshire.jpg\" ><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/expand.svg\" alt=\"Expand icon\"><\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Main findings<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The collection and interpretation of new groundwater chemistry data for the ORS aquifers in the Moray Firth area has led to the following conclusions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Mineralisation<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Groundwater in the ORS aquifers of the Moray Firth is generally moderately mineralised, with a median electrical conductivity (SEC) of 469&nbsp;\u03bcS\/cm (interquartile range 341 to 591&nbsp;\u03bcS\/cm). The major ion chemistry appears to be dominated by the dissolution of carbonate cements within the aquifer and overlying deposits, and the variable influence of sea water (either directly as saline intrusion or as aerosols).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">pH<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Groundwater pH values are variable (5.33 to 8.06), but the median pH value is near-neutral (7.31). In general, the pH of the lower and middle ORS aquifers is slightly more acidic, usually less than 7.0.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Major cations <\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The dominant cation is Ca, with a median concentration of 54.8&nbsp;mg\/L (interquartile range 42.5 to 74&nbsp;mg\/L). Mg and K concentrations are generally low (median 4.21 and 3.7&nbsp;mg\/L, respectively). The median Na is 20.6&nbsp;mg\/L (interquartile range 12.6 to 28&nbsp;mg\/L); however, a few samples have been affected by the proximity to the sea and have much higher concentrations (95th percentile 68&nbsp;mg\/L, and maximum concentration 153&nbsp;mg\/L).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Major anions<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The dominant anion is bicarbonate, with a median concentration of 183&nbsp;mg\/L (interquartile range 183 to 230&nbsp;mg\/L). Around one-third of the samples are saturated with respect to calcite. Sulfate concentrations are generally low (median 14.6&nbsp;mg\/L; interquartile range 7.7 to 36.4&nbsp;mg\/L), although higher concentrations are encountered in samples affected by sea water or possibly by gypsum bands within the aquifer. Chloride concentrations follow broadly the same distribution as Na and have a median of 38.8&nbsp;mg\/L and interquartile range of 19.5 to 49.5&nbsp;mg\/L; the same few samples show high Cl concentrations as do Na.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Dissolved oxygen<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>There is a large range in redox conditions across the aquifer. Sub-oxic or mildy reducing groundwaters (where dissolved oxygen concentrations are less than 1&nbsp;mg\/L) are prevalent across much of the upper ORS and parts of the middle ORS. These reducing conditions may reflect the presence of low-permeability layers (often marine in origin) within the thick superficial deposits overlying the ORS aquifer.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Iron and manganese<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Concentrations of minor and trace elements are dominated by the redox conditions. Concentrations of Fe and Mn are relatively high, with median concentrations of 38 and 43&nbsp;\u03bcg\/L, respectively, and 75th percentile values of 354 and 227&nbsp;\u03bcg\/L, respectively. Concentrations are highest in the upper ORS outcrop and parts of the middle ORS, reflecting the reducing nature of the groundwaters.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Nitrate<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Nitrate concentrations are variable across the aquifer units, although median concentrations are low (1.45&nbsp;mg\/L TON-N or less in each aquifer). The prevalence of low-oxygen conditions in the sampled groundwaters has led to denitrification, which means the relationship between land use and nitrate concentrations is less obvious than for other parts of Scotland (MacDonald et al., 2005). <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>However, there is a clear relationship between nitrate concentrations and the nitrate vulnerable zone (NVZ) that covers much of the study area, with the seven highest groundwater nitrate concentrations, ranging from 5.98 to 22.1&nbsp;mg\/L TON-N, all from samples taken within the NVZ. The highest median concentrations were from samples collected on land known to be used for dairy, pig or poultry farming.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Phosphorus<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Concentrations of phosphorous range from less than detection limit up to 172&nbsp;\u03bcg P\/L, with an overall median of 36&nbsp;\u03bcg P\/L, which is in the eutrophic range for surface waters. Concentrations are generally low in the western part of the study area, and an observed relationship with the spatial pattern of fluoride suggests that both elements may be, in part, derived from the dissolution of phosphate minerals such as apatite from the aquifer rocks. Concentrations in the eastern part of the study area are generally higher, usually in the mesotropic or eutrophic range for surface waters. The higher values may be related to land use, with phosphorus inputs from agricultural activity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Interpretations in terms of groundwater flow <\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The information on hydrochemistry and groundwater residence times can help give an insight into groundwater flow in the ORS aquifers in the Moray Firth area. There is no evidence of palaeowater in the samples taken from the area; most of the groundwaters are interpreted as being less than 50 years old using the SF<sub>6<\/sub> data. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The reducing nature of the groundwaters make it difficult to interpret the CFC data (since both CFC-11 and CFC-12 have been reduced) and get a reliable estimate of whether flow is predominantly fracture dominated or piston intergranular flow. Two samples that were not reducing appear to show piston flow; however, groundwater chemistry (in particularly nitrate) show no significant depth correlations, implying that groundwater is well mixed. A possible explanation is that piston flow occurs in the thick, overlying superficial deposits, but fracture flow may dominate within the sandstone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Carbon isotope evidence indicates the significant role of the nature of the superficial cover in affecting the groundwater chemistry. The carbon isotopes show differences between groundwaters recharged through glaciofluvial deposits, which are likely to derive bicarbonate from silicate hydrolysis, and those recharged through marine or beach deposits, in which bicarbonate is likely to derive from the dissolution of shell carbonate.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Summary statistics<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The tables and plot provide a statistical summary of the natural variation in groundwater chemistry in the ORS aquifers across the Moray Firth area. Data between the 10th and 90th percentiles for each element or ion are presented, which allows the influence of outliers to be minimised. We would expect new data to plot within this range 80 per cent of the time, with the exception of nitrate and phosphorus, where the influence of anthropogenic activity is likely to have distorted baseline conditions throughout much of the area.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/piperplot.jpg\">Piper diagram illustrating the distribution of groundwater chemistry data for all ORS aquifers<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Lower Old Red Sandstone<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The four lower ORS groundwater samples showed a range in cation dominance from Ca to Na-K. All but one are dominated by HCO<sub>3<\/sub>&nbsp;anions, with the remaining sample strongly dominated by Cl. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Dissolved oxygen and redox (Eh) values are only available for two of the samples, which were oxic. Three of the four samples had below-neutral pH values, and the median was 6.34, lower than the median for the whole ORS dataset. Concentrations of most major ions are lower on average than in middle and upper ORS groundwaters, except Mg, which is similar. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Relatively low Ca concentrations and pH values probably result from a lack of carbonate minerals in the aquifer or overlying superficial deposits, which is also reflected in the lower calcite saturation values for these groundwaters (all but one of the samples was strongly undersaturated with respect to calcite). Iron concentrations are typically low, while manganese concentrations show a larger range, with a low media value.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/LowerOldRedSST.jpg\">Table of summary statistics for the lower ORS<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Middle Old Red Sandstone<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Groundwaters from the middle ORS aquifer show an overall cationic dominance by Ca, but there is a relatively wide spread, trending towards no dominant cation. Their anionic distribution is more restricted, strongly dominated by HCO<sub>3<\/sub>, apart from a single Cl-dominated water. They show very little SO<sub>4<\/sub>&nbsp;influence. Most of the samples are undersaturated with respect to calcite, but less strongly so than the lower ORS waters.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Dissolved oxygen and Eh measurements are available for only seven of the fourteen middle ORS samples, of which four are oxic and three are anoxic. The groundwaters have a higher median pH than the lower ORS waters and the highest median HCO<sub>3<\/sub>&nbsp;concentration of the three aquifers. SEC and median Ca, Na, K and Cl concentrations are in between the average values for the lower and upper ORS groundwaters. Concentrations of SO<sub>4<\/sub>&nbsp;are, as for the lower ORS, relatively low, while magnesium concentrations are comparable to the other two aquifers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www2.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/baselineScotland\/Manganese.html\">Iron and Mn concentrations<\/a>&nbsp;are highly variable, from low (less than the detection limit for Fe) to high, although both show low median concentrations. The main control on the presence of high Fe and Mn is likely to be the presence of anoxic conditions within the aquifer (Homoncik et al., 2010).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Upper Old Red Sandstone<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Groundwaters from the Upper Old Red Sandstone aquifer typically show very similar cation distribution, dominated by Ca in all but one case, and closely grouped. They show a wider anionic range, from HCO<sub>3<\/sub>&nbsp;towards Cl and SO<sub>4<\/sub>. Most of the samples for which DO and Eh measurements are available are anoxic; only three of fourteen samples showed clearly oxic conditions. The groundwaters have the highest median pH value of the three aquifers, and a slightly lower median HCO<sub>3<\/sub>&nbsp;concentration than the Middle Old Red Sandstone waters. The median SEC value and median concentrations of all of the major ions except Mg are also the highest of the three aquifers. SO<sub>4<\/sub>&nbsp;concentrations in particular are noticeably higher than the other two aquifers. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Iron and Mn concentrations are also highly variable, from low (less than the detection limit for Fe) to very high. The median Fe concentration is not especially high, but the median Mn concentration is more than twice the drinking water limit. The high concentrations of both of these parameters are linked to the prevalence of anoxic conditions across much of the aquifer (Homoncik et al., 2010).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Maps of regional variation in selected ion concentrations<\/h2>\n\n\n\t\t\t\t<div  class=\"owl-carousel carousel-primary-color carousel owl-theme thumbs-carousel-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"item\"><figure  class=\"img-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_pH_HCO3.jpg\" data-toggle=\"lightbox\" data-footer=\"&lt;p&gt;pH and bicarbonate (HCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;\/sub&gt;). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-gallery=\"gallery_87499\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_pH_HCO3.jpg\" class=\"attachment-medium size-medium\" alt=\"MF_pH_HCO3\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"caption sm-line\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/info-caption.svg\" alt=\"Information icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-text\"><p>pH and bicarbonate (HCO<sub>3<\/sub>). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"expand-box expand-box-top\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_pH_HCO3.jpg\" ><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/expand.svg\" alt=\"Expand icon\"><\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"item\"><figure  class=\"img-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Na_K.jpg\" data-toggle=\"lightbox\" data-footer=\"&lt;p&gt;Sodium (Na) and potassium (K). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-gallery=\"gallery_87499\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Na_K.jpg\" class=\"attachment-medium size-medium\" alt=\"MF_Na_K\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"caption sm-line\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/info-caption.svg\" alt=\"Information icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-text\"><p>Sodium (Na) and potassium (K). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"expand-box expand-box-top\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Na_K.jpg\" ><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/expand.svg\" alt=\"Expand icon\"><\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"item\"><figure  class=\"img-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Ca_Mg.jpg\" data-toggle=\"lightbox\" data-footer=\"&lt;p&gt;Calcium (Ca)\u00a0 and magnesium (Mg). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-gallery=\"gallery_87499\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Ca_Mg.jpg\" class=\"attachment-medium size-medium\" alt=\"MF_Ca_Mg\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"caption sm-line\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/info-caption.svg\" alt=\"Information icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-text\"><p>Calcium (Ca)\u00a0 and magnesium (Mg). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"expand-box expand-box-top\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Ca_Mg.jpg\" ><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/expand.svg\" alt=\"Expand icon\"><\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"item\"><figure  class=\"img-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Cl_SO4.jpg\" data-toggle=\"lightbox\" data-footer=\"&lt;p&gt;Chloride (Cl) and sulfate (SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;\/sub&gt;). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-gallery=\"gallery_87499\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Cl_SO4.jpg\" class=\"attachment-medium size-medium\" alt=\"MF_Cl_SO4\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"caption sm-line\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/info-caption.svg\" alt=\"Information icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-text\"><p>Chloride (Cl) and sulfate (SO<sub>4<\/sub>). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"expand-box expand-box-top\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Cl_SO4.jpg\" ><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/expand.svg\" alt=\"Expand icon\"><\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"item\"><figure  class=\"img-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_TON_Fe.jpg\" data-toggle=\"lightbox\" data-footer=\"&lt;p&gt;Nitrate (TON) and iron (Fe). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-gallery=\"gallery_87499\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_TON_Fe.jpg\" class=\"attachment-medium size-medium\" alt=\"MF_TON_Fe\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"caption sm-line\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/info-caption.svg\" alt=\"Information icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-text\"><p>Nitrate (TON) and iron (Fe). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"expand-box expand-box-top\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_TON_Fe.jpg\" ><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/expand.svg\" alt=\"Expand icon\"><\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div><div class=\"item\"><figure  class=\"img-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Mn_F.jpg\" data-toggle=\"lightbox\" data-footer=\"&lt;p&gt;Manganese (Mn) and fluoride (F). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-gallery=\"gallery_87499\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Mn_F.jpg\" class=\"attachment-medium size-medium\" alt=\"MF_Mn_F\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"caption sm-line\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/info-caption.svg\" alt=\"Information icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-text\"><p>Manganese (Mn) and fluoride (F). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"expand-box expand-box-top\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/09\/MF_Mn_F.jpg\" ><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/expand.svg\" alt=\"Expand icon\"><\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Full report<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>You can download the&nbsp;<a href=\"http:\/\/nora.nerc.ac.uk\/10293\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry of the Old Red Sandstone aquifers of the Moray Firth area<\/a>&nbsp;report.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Further reading<\/h2>\n\n\n<div  class=\"accordions\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"acc-wrap\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<button class=\"acc-top secondary-background icon-arrow button no-btn\"><span class=\"button-content\" tabindex=\"-1\">References<\/span><\/button>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"acc-body sea-background-e\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><!-- wp:paragraph --><\/p>\n<p>Homoncik, S, MacDonald, A M, Heal, K V, \u00d3 Dochartaigh, B \u00c9, and Ngwenya, B T. 2010.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2010.02.017\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Manganese concentrations in Scottish groundwater<\/a>.\u00a0<em>Science of the Total Environment<\/em>, Vol. 408, 2467\u20132473. DOI: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2010.02.017<\/p>\n<p><!-- \/wp:paragraph --> <!-- wp:paragraph --><\/p>\n<p>\u00d3 Dochartaigh, B \u00c9, Smedley, P L, MacDonald, A M, and Darling, W G. 2010.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/nora.nerc.ac.uk\/10293\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Baseline Scotland: groundwater chemistry of the Old Red Sandstone aquifers of the Moray Firth area<\/a>. <em>British Geological Survey Open Report<\/em> OR\/10\/031. (Nottingham, UK: British Geological Survey.) Available: http:\/\/nora.nerc.ac.uk\/10293\/<\/p>\n<p><!-- \/wp:paragraph --> <!-- wp:paragraph --><\/p>\n<p>MacDonald, A M, Robins, N S, Ball, D F and \u00d3 Dochartaigh, B \u00c9. 2005.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1144\/sjg41010003\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">An overview of groundwater in Scotland<\/a>. <em>Scottish Journal of Geology<\/em>, Vol. 41(1), 3\u201311. DOI: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1144\/sjg41010003<\/p>\n<p><!-- \/wp:paragraph --><\/p>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n\n\n<section class=\"cta-section  sea-background-e \">\n\t<div class=\"container\">\n\t\t<div class=\"row md-row\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"col-12\">\n\t\t\t\t<h2>Need more information?<\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"btn-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/people\/smedley-pauline\/\"  class=\"button primary-background   \">Contact Pauline Smedley<\/a><\/div>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"","protected":false},"author":7,"featured_media":4938,"parent":1959,"menu_order":2,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_relevanssi_hide_post":"","_relevanssi_hide_content":"","_relevanssi_pin_for_all":"","_relevanssi_pin_keywords":"","_relevanssi_unpin_keywords":"","_relevanssi_related_keywords":"","_relevanssi_related_include_ids":"","_relevanssi_related_exclude_ids":"","_relevanssi_related_no_append":"","_relevanssi_related_not_related":"","_relevanssi_related_posts":"1","_relevanssi_noindex_reason":"","footnotes":""},"tags":[],"class_list":["post-4913","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.2 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Moray Firth - BGS Groundwater<\/title>\n<meta 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