{"id":2070,"date":"2024-01-08T11:30:13","date_gmt":"2024-01-08T11:30:13","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/groundwater-and-health\/fluoride-in-groundwater\/"},"modified":"2026-03-20T16:20:24","modified_gmt":"2026-03-20T16:20:24","slug":"fluoride-in-groundwater","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/groundwater-and-health\/fluoride-in-groundwater\/","title":{"rendered":"Fluoride in groundwater"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t\t<section class=\"hero-section hero-section-with-social\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"hero-info-wrap\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"row\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"col-12\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"hero-info\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h1>Fluoride in groundwater<\/h1>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"social-wrap social-wrap-inline-them\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"sea-background-f\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<span>Share this article<\/span><a target=\"_blank\"  href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/sharer\/sharer.php?u=https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/groundwater-and-health\/fluoride-in-groundwater\/\"><span class=\"icon-facebook\"><span class=\"hidden\">Facebook<\/span><\/span><\/a><a target=\"_blank\"  href=\"https:\/\/twitter.com\/intent\/tweet?text=Fluoride%20in%20groundwater&#038;url=https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/groundwater-and-health\/fluoride-in-groundwater\/\"><span class=\"icon-twitter\"><span class=\"hidden\">Twitter<\/span><\/span><\/a><a   onclick=\"javascript:void( (function() {var e=document.createElement('script' );e.setAttribute('type','text\/javascript' );e.setAttribute('charset','UTF-8' );e.setAttribute('src','\/\/assets.pinterest.com\/js\/pinmarklet.js?r='+Math.random()*99999999);document.body.appendChild(e)})());\"  href=\"javascript:void(0);\"><span class=\"icon-pinterest\"><span class=\"hidden\">Pinterest<\/span><\/span><\/a><a target=\"_blank\"  href=\"https:\/\/wa.me?text=https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/groundwater-and-health\/fluoride-in-groundwater\/\"><span class=\"icon-whatsapp\"><span class=\"hidden\">WhatsApp<\/span><\/span><\/a><a   href=\"mailto:?subject=Fluoride%20in%20groundwater&#038;body=High%20concentrations%20of%20fluoride%20in%20groundwater%20affect%20more%20than%20200%20million%20people%20worldwide.%20(https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/groundwater-and-health\/fluoride-in-groundwater\/)\"><span class=\"icon-mail\"><span class=\"hidden\">Email<\/span><\/span><\/a><a href=\"#\" data-copy=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/quality\/groundwater-and-health\/fluoride-in-groundwater\/\" class=\"copy-url-on-click\"><span class=\"icon-link\"><span class=\"hidden\">Copy Link<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/div><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\n\n\n<section class=\"wp-block-bgs-blocks-content-container content-section\"><div class=\"container\"><div class=\"row\"><div class=\"col-12\">\n<p>High-fluoride groundwaters are a recognised feature of a number of aquifers across the world. Groundwater is an important source of drinking water and it is estimated that more than 200&nbsp;million people worldwide are drinking groundwater with fluoride concentrations greater than the WHO guideline value of 1.5&nbsp;mg\/L. The majority of these cases occur in the developing world.<\/p>\n\n\n<figure  class=\"img-wrap\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/08\/Fluorite_8.jpg\" class=\"lazy-blur\" alt=\"Cubic crystals of green fluorite.\" data-src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/08\/Fluorite_8.jpg\" \/><figcaption class=\"caption sm-line\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/info-caption.svg\" alt=\"Information icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-text\"><p>Fluorite (calcium fluoride, CaF<sub>2<\/sub>) from County Durham, England. \u00a9 G\u00e9ry PARENT<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n<p>Groundwaters are much more vulnerable to fluoride enrichment than surface waters because of the greater impacts of water\/rock reactions in aquifers. We have worked on fluoride occurrence in a number of aquifers in the UK and overseas, and with a number of research partners.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Fluoride and health<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The optimum concentrations of fluoride in drinking water lie within a relatively narrow range. Fluoride has long been found to have a beneficial effect on dental health, although when present in drinking water at concentrations much above the WHO guideline value (and national drinking water limit for most countries) of 1.5&nbsp;mg\/L, long term use can result in development of dental&nbsp;fluorosis&nbsp;or at its worst, crippling skeletal&nbsp;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/WHO-CED-PHE-EPE-19.4.5\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">fluorosis<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The effects on health depend on a number of factors including dose from other sources of fluoride (toothpastes, food), age, gender and general health status.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">High-fluoride groundwater provinces<\/h2>\n\n\n\t\t\t\t<div  class=\"owl-carousel carousel-primary-color carousel owl-theme thumbs-carousel-js\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"item\"><figure  class=\"img-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2024\/01\/fluoride-worldmap-bigger.webp\" data-toggle=\"lightbox\" data-footer=\"&lt;p&gt;Map of documented occurrences of high-fluoride groundwater (more than 1.5 mg\/L). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-gallery=\"gallery_87326\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2024\/01\/fluoride-worldmap-bigger-300x201.webp\" class=\"attachment-medium size-medium\" alt=\"Map of documented occurrences of high-fluoride groundwater (&gt;1.5 mg\/L). BGS \u00a9 UKRI\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"caption \">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/info-caption.svg\" alt=\"Information icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-text\"><p>Map of documented occurrences of high-fluoride groundwater (more than 1.5 mg\/L). BGS \u00a9 UKRI.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"expand-box expand-box-top\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2024\/01\/fluoride-worldmap-bigger.webp\" ><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/expand.svg\" alt=\"Expand icon\"><\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\n\n<p>High-fluoride groundwaters tend to be found in association with:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>crystalline rocks containing fluorine-rich minerals, especially granites and volcanic rocks<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>shallow aquifers in arid areas experiencing strong evaporation<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>sedimentary aquifers undergoing ion exchange<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>inputs of geothermal water<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The East African Rift Valley<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>The East African Rift Valley constitutes one of the most significant high-fluoride provinces in the world.<\/p>\n\n\n<figure  class=\"img-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/08\/P577850.webp\" data-toggle=\"lightbox\" data-footer=\"&lt;p&gt;Trachytic pumice cones on the upper north-eastern flanks of Paka volcano in the Great Rift Valley of Kenya. BGS \u00a9 UKRI.&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-gallery=\"gallery_78346\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/08\/P577850.webp\" class=\"lazy-blur\" alt=\"A series of brown volcanic cones stretches into the distance\" data-src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/08\/P577850.webp\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"caption \">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/info-caption.svg\" alt=\"Information icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-text\"><p>Trachytic pumice cones on the upper north-eastern flanks of Paka volcano in the Great Rift Valley of Kenya. BGS \u00a9 UKRI.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"expand-box expand-box-top\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/08\/P577850.webp\" ><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/expand.svg\" alt=\"Expand icon\"><\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n<p>High-fluoride groundwaters, derived from combinations of reaction with young volcanic rocks, geothermal inputs and evaporation, occur alongside alkaline lakes (pH over 8) with, in some cases, concentrations of dissolved fluoride up to 300&nbsp;mg\/L.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The association of high-fluoride groundwaters with granites and acidic volcanic rocks occurs because of the relative abundance in these rocks of high-fluoride minerals such as biotite, amphibole, apatite and fluorite.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Groundwaters are also typically sodium bicarbonate waters with low concentrations of calcium, conditions under which the solubility of fluorite (CaF<sub>2<\/sub>), and hence also dissolved fluoride concentrations, is increased.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Mitigating fluoride problems<\/h2>\n\n\n<figure  class=\"img-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/08\/P1071046.webp\" data-toggle=\"lightbox\" data-footer=\"&lt;p&gt;High-fluorine minerals such as amphibole, biotite, sphene and apatite (pictured) contribute fluoride to percolating groundwater. BGS \u00a9 UKRI.&lt;\/p&gt;\n\" data-gallery=\"gallery_52724\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/08\/P1071046.webp\" class=\"lazy-blur\" alt=\"a green crystal of apatite\" data-src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/08\/P1071046.webp\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"caption \">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/info-caption.svg\" alt=\"Information icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"caption-text\"><p>High-fluorine minerals such as amphibole, biotite, sphene and apatite (pictured) contribute fluoride to percolating groundwater. BGS \u00a9 UKRI.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"expand-box expand-box-top\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2025\/08\/P1071046.webp\" ><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/groundwater\/wp-content\/themes\/bgs\/img\/expand.svg\" alt=\"Expand icon\"><\/a><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n<p>Resolving the fluoride problem in drinking water in developing countries remains a significant challenge.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Fluoride problems tend to occur in arid regions where resources are in any case limited and often of marginal quality (saline). Water treatment, using coagulation or adsorption\/ion-exchange techniques, is technically feasible and has often been tried, although has typically met with limited success in developing countries.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Rates of success depend on: <\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>efficacy of method<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>user acceptance<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>ease of maintenance<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>effectiveness of monitoring<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>degree of community participation and availability<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>cost of raw materials<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Further reading<\/h2>\n\n\n<div  class=\"accordions\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"acc-wrap\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<button class=\"acc-top secondary-background icon-arrow button no-btn\"><span class=\"button-content\" tabindex=\"-1\">References<\/span><\/button>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"acc-body sea-background-e\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><!-- wp:paragraph --><\/p>\n<p>Edmunds, W M, and Smedley, P L. 2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-94-007-4375-5_13\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Chapter 12: Fluoride in natural waters<\/a>. 311\u2013336 in <em>Essentials of Medical Geology<\/em>, Second Edition. Selinus, O, Alloway, B, Centeno, J A, Finkelman, R B, Fuge, R, Lindh, U and Smedley, P L (editors). Springer.<\/p>\n<p>Nordstrom, D K, and Smedley, P L. 2022.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21083\/978-1-77470-019-8\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Fluoride in groundwater<\/a>. (Ontario, Canada: The Groundwater Project\/University of Guelph.) ISBN: 978-1-77470-019-8. DOI: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21083\/978-1-77470-019-8<\/p>\n<p><!-- \/wp:paragraph --> <!-- wp:paragraph --><\/p>\n<p>Reddy, D V, Nagabhushanam, P, Sukhija, B S, Reddy, A G S, and Smedley, P L. 2010. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chemgeo.2009.10.003\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Fluoride dynamics in the granitic aquifer of the Wailapally watershed, Nalgonda District, India<\/a>. <em>Chemical Geology<\/em>, Vol. 269, 278\u2013289. DOI: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.chemgeo.2009.10.003<\/p>\n<p><!-- \/wp:paragraph --> <!-- wp:paragraph --><\/p>\n<p>Smedley, P L, Nicolli, H B, Macdonald, D M J, Barros, A J, and Tullio, J O.\u00a0\u00a02002.\u00a0 <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0883-2927%2801%2900082-8\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Hydrogeochemistry of arsenic and other inorganic constituents in groundwaters from La Pampa, Argentina<\/a>. <em>Applied Geochemistry<\/em>, Vol. 17, 259\u2013284. DOI: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0883-2927%2801%2900082-8<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div><\/div><\/div><\/div><\/section>\n\n\n<section class=\"cta-section  sea-background-e \">\n\t<div class=\"container\">\n\t\t<div class=\"row md-row\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"col-12\">\n\t\t\t\t<h2>Need more information?<\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"btn-wrap\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.bgs.ac.uk\/people\/lapworth-daniel\/\"  class=\"button primary-background   \">contact Dan Lapworth<\/a><\/div>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>High concentrations of fluoride in groundwater affect more than 200 million people worldwide.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":6,"featured_media":3925,"parent":58,"menu_order":1,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_relevanssi_hide_post":"","_relevanssi_hide_content":"","_relevanssi_pin_for_all":"","_relevanssi_pin_keywords":"","_relevanssi_unpin_keywords":"","_relevanssi_related_keywords":"","_relevanssi_related_include_ids":"","_relevanssi_related_exclude_ids":"","_relevanssi_related_no_append":"","_relevanssi_related_not_related":"","_relevanssi_related_posts":"1","_relevanssi_noindex_reason":"","footnotes":""},"tags":[],"class_list":["post-2070","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.2 - 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